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Computer

Basic Operations




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How Computers Work:

Input: Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input devices such as the keyboard, mouse, disks, Scanners and Cameras, or through other computers via network connections or modems connected to the Internet. The input device also retrieves information off disks.
Output & Output Devices: displays information on the screen (monitor) or the printer, speaker and sends information to other computers. They also display messages about what errors may have occurred and brings up message or dialog box asking for more information to be input. The output device also saves information on the disk(hard disk) for future use.
Processing: The CPU (central processing unit) is sometimes called the Control Unit and directs the operation of the input and output devices. The Coprocessor or the Arithmetic-Logic Unit does arithmetic and comparisons. The memory or RAM temporarily stores information (files and programs) while you are using or working on them. The BIOS  (basic input/output system) controls the dialogue between the various devices.

Keyboard Layout and Data Entry

ENTER / RETURN - Moves the cursor down one line and to the left margin. Enter also process commands such as choosing an option in a dialog (message) boxes and submitting a form.
DEL or DELETE - Deletes the character at cursor and/or characters to the right of the cursor and all highlighted (or selected) text.
BKSP / BACKSPACE - Deletes the character to the left of cursor and all highlighted text.
SPACE BAR - Moves the cursor one space at a time to the right
SHIFT KEY - Use the shift keys to type capital letters and to type the upper character on keys with two characters on them
CAPS LOCK - Locks the keyboard so it types capital letters (a light goes on when caps lock is on)
TAB - Moves the cursor five spaces to the right (number of spaces are usually adjustable). Tab moves to the next field in a form or table (Shift-Tab for previous field).
ESC / ESCAPE - Cancels a menu or dialog box
ARROW KEYS - Moves the cursor around document without changing text
FUNCTION KEYS / F KEYS - Access commands by themselves or in combination with the three command keys, CTRL, SHIFT, and ALT

Function KeysTab KeyCaps LockLeft Control or CTRL KeyLeft Alternate or Alt KeyArrow KeysDelete KeyInsert KeyBackspace or BKSP KeyEnter KeyHome KeyEnd KeySpace BarRight Alternative or Alt KeyRight Control or CTRL KeyRight Shift KeyEscape KeyLeft Shift KeyPage or PG Up KeyPage Down KeyNumber PadLock IndicatorsAlphanumeric and Symbol KeysPrint Screen Key (copies screen to clipboard in Windows)Scroll Lock KeyPause/Break Key

Command or Special Keys

Command keys normally do nothing on their own but work in combination with other keys. Each piece of software uses the command keys differently though there is a move to standardize some functions. The Control key or Ctrl is often used to access commands. The Alternative key or Alt is often used to access menus. The Shift key is used to type CAPITAL LETTERS. As well the command keys are all used to move through documents and edit text faster and easier. As well many computers have Special keys design specifically for the particular computer. Apple computers have the Apple keys and Macs have Command keys. Many keyboards now have a Windows key specifically for Windows 9x and newer systems. Many older computers also have special keys used for a variety of different functions.
Some Notebook or Laptop keys are left out because of space limitations and they usually have a Special function key which allows other keys to double for the missing ones.

Basic Typing Rules

Place one space between each word, after a punctuation mark and at the end of a sentence. Always start a sentence with a capital letter. Use capitals for names, addresses, provinces and countries, places, organizations, businesses, associations, schools, colleges, universities, days of the week, months, holidays, nationalities, ethnic groups and languages.
Learning the keyboard is the first step to learning computers. Learning involves practice. It really is as simple as that. There are two kinds of typing.
The first is called Touch Typing. The Touch Typist uses the Home Keys (asdf for the left hand and jkl; for the right) and all the fingers on both hands as well as the thumbs for the Space Bar while typing. There are many commercial and public domain programs that are designed to teach this method.
The other method is some times called 'Hunt and Peck' or depending on finger strength 'Search and Destroy'. This involves using one or more fingers on one or two hands to type. It is a perfectly acceptable way of using a computer and many people get along fine with this technique.

Internet
The Internet or the Net is a collection of computers, all linked together, to share information globally. It was first developed in the U.S. by two universities who were both working on the same contract and wanted to share their data. They were faxing information back and forth and then retyping it until they came up with a piece of software called Unix to Unix Copy Program or UUCP.

The Internet was born and has mushroomed outward from that point.

There are 4 things that are necessary to "get on the net" with a full graphic interface (picture, sounds, animation, etc...).

* A computer - preferably with a fast processor and lots of memory (64 Mb or more)
* A modem - preferably 56,000 baud or high speed digital
* Browser Software - often installed with your operating system or can be downloaded off the Internet
* An ISP - An Internet Service Provider is a service that connects your home or office computer to the Internet

Once you have purchased an account with an ISP you will be given an account name. This is often your email address as well. You will also be given a password and should also be provided with instructions on how to change the password to a unique and personalized. The generic password provided with your account should be change to one of your own. Protect your password as you would any personal identification number (PIN) number.
The ISP will also provide information on how to configure your software. This can be simple or difficult depending on your Operating System. Once configured you simply run the software to connect your computer's modem to the ISP's modem, giving you access to the Internet.
There are a number of pieces of software that work together to connect you to the Internet.
The first and most complicated is the dialer or socket software. This is the software that makes the physical connection with the ISP's computer and the internet. This needs to be configured only once but you will need instructions from your ISP on how to do this as each ISP has a different setup.
The second piece is an Internet browser. This is the program that locates websites for you and allows users to maneuver around (surf) the World Wide Web and view web pages. Some of the more popular browsers are Mozilla Firefox Firefox and Microsoft's Internet Explorer. Internet Explorer Mosaic was the first browser and most modern browsers still use the basic model that the first browser used. Some other browser are Opera, Safari, Netscape as well as dozens of others. Before graphic browsers Lynx was the most popular browser and is still available for text browsing. New browser are being developed and current browsers are constantly updating there programs. It is extremely important to update your browser every once in a while. Some ISP have a proprietary type of browser though most have given up this practice as it limits the users abilities to browse the Internet.
Type the url or web address of the website that you want to visit in the address bar of your browser and press Enter or click Go. Collect your favorite websites by adding them to your Favorites or Bookmarks. To go to a Favorite or Bookmark, click on the menu and click on the link.
Another piece of software is an email program Thunderbird Outlook Express Mail. This program controls sending, composing and receiving email. Most email programs can also be used to read postings on newsgroups.
Instructions for getting this software can be obtained from your ISP though you may have to download the newest version yourself.
There are many different ISPs. If you attend a university or college or belong to a military or government organization you can most likely get Internet access through your school or work. If not you will most likely buy access from a commercial provider.
Another option, if you are in a major center, is the Freenet. Many major cities have groups devoted to making the Internet accessible to the greater majority of people and create Freenets which allowing members free access to the Internet. They run on private and public donations. It is an excellent way of learning about the Internet in a helpful environment.
Once you are connected you will have access to Email, Newsgroups, the World Wide Web (WWW), File Transfer Protocol (ftp), Internet Relay Chat (irc), Search Engines, ICQ and other Internet Services.

Computer Viruses
A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a certain unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like displaying a happy face on the user's screen at a certain time and date. It can also be very destructive and damage your computer's programs and files causing the computer to stop working.

The reason why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The most quoted reason is simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based "smash the machine" motivations, antiestablishment/anti-corporate actions, criminal intent, and various others that range into the "conspiracy theory" realm.

Viruses take two basic forms

One is a boot sector viruses which infect the section of a disk that is first read by the computer. This type of virus infects the boot or master section of any disks that it comes in contact with. The second is a program virus that infects other programs when the infected program is run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change themselves (polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter.

Though viruses do not damage computer hardware there have been attempts to create programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or lodge itself in the computer's clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even months after the computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain microchips (BIOS chip for instance). These microchips need to be modified under normal computer use but the virus program can produce changes which cause them to fail. Other viruses will affect the characters or images displayed on the screen which may give the impression of monitor failure.

Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the computers it infects and can cost a lot of time and money to correct it.

Computer viruses have been around for a long time, even before computers became widely used and they will likely remain with us forever. For that reason computer users will always need ways to protect themselves from virus programs. The main, common feature of a virus is that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and infect other computers.

A computer gets a virus from an infected file.

The virus might attach themselves to a game, a program (both shareware and commercial) or a file downloaded from a bulletin board or the Internet.

You cannot get a virus from a plain email message or from a simple text file! That is because the virus needs to be 'run' or executed before it can take effect. This usually happens when the user tries to open an infected program, accesses an infected disk or opens a file with an infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of text which does not execute or run when opened.

Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email messages with HTML and attach scripts to them for various purposes and it is possible for a malicious hacker to attempt to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML type of email message.

When you are accepting software or scripts on Internet sites or reading mail from unknown senders it is best not to run a program from that site or sender without checking it with an anti-virus program first.
Protect yourself
You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing is to get an anti-virus program. Most reputable companies that create virus protection programs release an evaluation copy that an Internet user can download for free and use for a certain amount of time. This anti-virus program will be able to check your computer for viruses and repair damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may have to replace infected files that cannot be repaired.
The second thing you can do is purchase a copy of the program. The reason for this is that viruses are constantly being created. When you purchase an anti-virus program you are also purchasing periodical updates which keep your anti-virus program up-to-date and able to deal with new viruses as they are encountered. Commercial virus programs also allow the user to customize when and how the program will check the computer for viruses. You will need to renew this updating service periodically.
If you find that your computer has been infected with a virus use an anti-virus program to clean your computer and make sure to check all the disks that you use. This includes all the hard drives on your computer(s) and all your floppy disks and CDs as well as any media that you save information on. Remember that the virus can easily re-infect your computer from one infected file!
If you have to reload your computer programs, use the original program disks. You may want to check your original disks before reinstalling the software. If your original disks are infected contact the distributor to get replacements.
Always take the time to ensure that your computer is properly protected. Spending money on a good virus checking program could save you hundreds of dollars and lots of time later.
A discussion of viruses would not be complete without mentioning hoaxes. Malicious people without programming skills will send out fake virus warnings causing people to take unnessary measures which often cause your computer harm. One example tries to get the unsuspecting computer user to delete an important system file by warning them that it is a virus. A legitimate virus warning will provide a link to a website operated by an anti-virus company with more information about that virus. Don't forward a virus warning until you have check out whether it is legitimate.

Hardware
The hardware are the parts of the computer itself including the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboards, monitors, case and drives (hard, CD, DVD, floppy, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems, scanners, digital cameras and cards (sound, colour, video) etc... Together they are often referred to as a personal computer.

Central Processing Unit - Though the term relates to a specific chip or the processor a CPU's performance is determined by the rest of the computer's circuitry and chips.

Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU though there are many other companies that produce processors for personal computers. Examples are the CPU made by Motorola and AMD.
With faster processors the clock speed becomes more important. Compared to some of the first computers which operated at below 30 megahertz (MHz) the Pentium chips began at 75 MHz in the late 1990's. Speeds now exceed 3000+ MHz or 3 gigahertz (GHz) and different chip manufacturers use different measuring standards (check your local computer store for the latest speed). It depends on the circuit board that the chip is housed in, or the motherboard, as to whether you are able to upgrade to a faster chip. The motherboard contains the circuitry and connections that allow the various component to communicate with each other.
Though there were many computers using many different processors previous to this I call the 80286 processor the advent of home computers as these were the processors that made computers available for the average person. Using a processor before the 286 involved learning a proprietary system and software. Most new software are being developed for the newest and fastest processors so it can be difficult to use an older computer system.
Keyboard - The keyboard is used to type information into the computer or input information. There are many different keyboard layouts and sizes with the most common for Latin based languages being the QWERTY layout (named for the first 6 keys). The standard keyboard has 101 keys. Notebooks have embedded keys accessible by special keys or by pressing key combinations (CTRL or Command and P for example). Ergonomically designed keyboards are designed to make typing easier. Hand held devices have various and different keyboard configurations and touch screens.
Some of the keys have a special use. They are referred to as command keys. The 3 most common are the Control (CTRL), Alternate (Alt) and the Shift keys though there can be more (the Windows key for example or the Command key). Each key on a standard keyboard has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower character and hold Shift to get the upper.
Removable Storage and/or Disk Drives - All disks need a drive to get information off - or read - and put information on the disk - or write. Each drive is designed for a specific type of disk whether it is a CD, DVD, hard disk or floppy. Often the term 'disk' and 'drive' are used to describe the same thing but it helps to understand that the disk is the storage device which contains computer files - or software - and the drive is the mechanism that runs the disk.Mouse

Digital flash drives work slightly differently as they use memory cards to store information so there are no moving parts. Digital cameras also use Flash memory cards to store information, in this case photographs. Hand held devices use digital drives and many also use removable or built in memory cards.
Mouse - Most modern computers today are run using a mouse controlled pointer. Generally if the mouse has two buttons the left one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used to access menus. If the mouse has one button (Mac for instance) it controls all the activity and a mouse with a third button can be used by specific software programs.
One type of mouse has a round ball under the bottom of the mouse that rolls and turns two wheels which control the direction of the pointer on the screen. Another type of mouse uses an optical system to track the movement of the mouse. Laptop computers use touch pads, buttons and other devices to control the pointer. Hand helds use a combination of devices to control the pointer, including touch screens.
Note: It is important to clean the mouse periodically, particularly if it becomes sluggish. A ball type mouse has a small circular panel that can be opened, allowing you to remove the ball. Lint can be removed carefully with a tooth pick or tweezers and the ball can be washed with mild detergent. A build up will accumulate on the small wheels in the mouse. Use a small instrument or finger nail to scrape it off taking care not to scratch the wheels. Track balls can be cleaned much like a mouse and touch-pad can be wiped with a clean, damp cloth. An optical mouse can accumulate material from the surface that it is in contact with which can be removed with a finger nail or small instrument.
Monitors - The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called outputting information. When the computer needs more information it will display a message on the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types and sizes. The resolution of the monitor determines the sharpness of the screen. The resolution can be adjusted to control the screen's display..
Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube or liquid crystal display. Most notebooks use a liquid crystal display monitor.
To get the full benefit of today's software with full colour graphics and animation, computers need a color monitor with a display or graphics card.
Printers - The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to paper or a hard copy. There are many different types of printers with various levels of quality. The three basic types of printer are; dot matrix, inkjet, and laser.

* Dot matrix printers work like a typewriter transferring ink from a ribbon to paper with a series or 'matrix' of tiny pins.
* Ink jet printers work like dot matrix printers but fires a stream of ink from a cartridge directly onto the paper.
* Laser printers use the same technology as a photocopier using heat to transfer toner onto paper.

Modem - A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines, cable, satellite or line-of-sight wireless.
The term stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal from digital, which computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back again. Digital modems transfer digital information directly without changing to analog.
Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring tool is called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud but today analog speeds of 56,000 are standard. Cable, wireless or digital subscriber lines can transfer information much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up.
Modems also use Error Correction which corrects for transmission errors by constantly checking whether the information was received properly or not and Compression which allows for faster data transfer rates. Information is transferred in packets. Each packet is checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.
Anyone who has used the Internet has noticed that at times the information travels at different speeds. Depending on the amount of information that is being transferred, the information will arrive at it's destination at different times. The amount of information that can travel through a line is limited. This limit is called bandwidth.
There are many more variables involved in communication technology using computers, much of which is covered in the section on the Internet.
Scanners- Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to the computer as a series of bits or a bitmap. You can then take that image and use it in a paint program, send it out as a fax or print it. With optional Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software you can convert printed documents such as newspaper articles to text that can be used in your word processor. Most scanners use TWAIN software that makes the scanner accessable by other software applications.
Digital cameras allow you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a memory chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can also capture sound and video.
Case - The case houses the microchips and circuitry that run the computer. Desktop models usually sit under the monitor and tower models beside. They come in many sizes, including desktop, mini, midi, and full tower. There is usually room inside to expand or add components at a later time. By removing the cover off the case you may find plate covered, empty slots that allow you to add cards. There are various types of slots including IDE, ASI, USB, PCI and Firewire slots.
Depending on the type notebook computers may have room to expand . Most Notebooks also have connections or ports that allows expansion or connection to exterior, peripheral devices such as monitor, portable hard-drives or other devices.
Cards - Cards are components added to computers to increase their capability. When adding a peripheral device make sure that your computer has a slot of the type needed by the device.
Sound cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice. The older sound cards were 8 bit then 16 bit then 32 bit. Though the human ear can't distinguish the fine difference between sounds produced by the more powerful sound card they allow for more complex music and music production.
Colour cards allow computers to produce colour (with a colour monitor of course). The first colour cards were 2 bit which produced 4 colours [CGA]. It was amazing what could be done with those 4 colours. Next came 4 bit allowing for 16 [EGA and VGA ] colours. Then came 16 bit allowing for 1064 colours and then 24 bit which allows for almost 17 million colours and now 32 bit and higher allow monitors to display almost a billion separate colours.
Video cards allow computers to display video and animation. Some video cards allow computers to display television as well as capture frames from video. A video card with a digital video camera allows computers users to produce live video. A high speed connection is required for effective video transmission.
Network cards allow computers to connect together to communicate with each other. Network cards have connections for cable, thin wire or wireless networks. For more information see the section on Networks.
Cables connect internal components to the Motherboard, which is a board with series of electronic path ways and connections allowing the CPU to communicate with the other components of the computer.
Memory - Memory can be very confusing but is usually one of the easiest pieces of hardware to add to your computer. It is common to confuse chip memory with disk storage. An example of the difference between memory and storage would be the difference between a table where the actual work is done (memory) and a filing cabinet where the finished product is stored (disk). To add a bit more confusion, the computer's hard disk can be used as temporary memory when the program needs more than the chips can provide.
Random Access Memory or RAM is the memory that the computer uses to temporarily store the information as it is being processed. The more information being processed the more RAM the computer needs.
One of the first home computers used 64 kilobytes of RAM memory (Commodore 64). Today's modern computers need a minimum of 64 Mb (recommended 128 Mb or more) to run Windows or OS 10 with modern software.
RAM memory chips come in many different sizes and speeds and can usually be expanded. Older computers came with 512 Kb of memory which could be expanded to a maximum of 640 Kb. In most modern computers the memory can be expanded by adding or replacing the memory chips depending on the processor you have and the type of memory your computer uses. Memory chips range in size from 1 Mb to 4 Gb. As computer technology changes the type of memory changes as well making old memory chips obsolete. Check your computer manual to find out what kind of memory your computer uses before purchasing new memory chips.

Computer Security
There is a lot of discussion these days about computer security as more people use email and more services such as banking, mail orders and subscriptions become available through the Internet. But how secure is the Internet and what is computer security?
Updating Software

It is very important to update your software periodically. When a program is released, particular internet browsers, it may contain flaws usually referred to as bugs. These bugs may not appear to be a problem but criminals will attempt to use these flaws for their own use. Keeping your software up to date will help keep your computer secure.
Computers & Security

Before the Internet, computer security was limited to 'closed systems' or network computers such as offices or banks where only people physically in the office could use the computer system. It was quite easy for the network supervisor to set up user names and passwords and since that time people have become used to logging on before they can use these types of computers or resources.

With the advent of the Internet, computers users can now work in an 'open system' and security has become much more complicated. Even though you can now connect your home or office computer to the Internet and perform remote transactions without leaving the building you still want to be sure that the transaction is secure. The transaction takes place through the Internet by bouncing the information through various computers before it reaches, for example, the bank's computer. You want to be sure that no one observes the transaction along the way and collects or modifies your transaction information.

This is where computer security comes in. There are many different types of security systems though most use a process called encryption. When you connect to your bank or other service to make a transaction you are often required to send your account number or user name as well as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) or password for verification. This information should only be sent after establishing a secure connection. If you are using an Internet browser you will see a small closed lock appear in the window of the browser. Once you are connected to a secure server any information you send or receive is scrambled or encrypted using a mathematical formula and then reassembled or decrypted at the other end. The computer user usually will not notice this happening as they perform their secure transaction. Anyone with criminal intent who intercepts your transaction will be treated to a stream of garbled nonsense - (e.g.. qANQR1DBwU4D560EJv6XqrMQB)!

If this is the first time you use a new service you most often will need to setup an account and possibly download a small piece of software called a plug in which allows your computer to create the secure connection or link.

The transaction often involves the exchange of a small file that keeps track of the transaction and can act a flag or bookmark when you next visit that website. These small files are called cookies and are set by the website you are visiting. They can contain information such as the type of server you are connecting from, the type of browser you are using, the last site you visited and any information you volunteer. You can view the information stored in the cookie. Try a search for 'cookie' to find the cookies folder. Windows users can view any cookies they are storing in the folder C:\Windows\Cookies\.
Setting up security

As the most people won't be setting up their own secure server the scope of this section is limited to the topics of protecting email and small business or organizational transactions.

Email can be protected using a service or an application (program). There are others but the two that stand out currently are S/MIME and PGP. S/MIME requires the user to register with a 3 party service which issues a digital id that you attach to your message. Though this is usually a commercial service there is often a free introductory period. PGP is free for personal use or a commercial application for business use and is run from your own computer.

Both methods allow users to sign or attach a digital identification to the email message which verifies, to the recipient, that the message is from the original person or organization and that the information wasn't tampered with in transit. These methods also allow the user to encrypt their message so that anyone intercepting the message wouldn't be able to read it. You can also decide the level of encryption from low; in which a nerd with some good software and enough time on their hands could possibly decrypt to high (128 bit) which would take a whole mountain of experts weeks to decrypt if even then. Most of us will choose somewhere in between as this process involves increased time and file size.

Both methods use key pairs of public and private keys. Your public keys is sent to everyone that you communicate through email with. Your public key can be sent through various methods including posting it to an internet service or sending it as part of an email message. Public keys can also be post on your website in a file. Your friends and associated can add your public key to a file called a key ring). When someone wants to send you a secure email the sender encrypts their messages with your public key. When you receive the email you must decrypt it using your private key. Many email programs will automatically verify that the message is authentic. You will need to type in your password to view the message.

Encryption also involves using the key pair but in reverse. Once your message is completed you encrypt the file using the recipient's public key ensuring that only the recipient can ever access that message with their private key. (Editor's note: Don't lose your private key!).

Small businesses and organizations that wish to offer transactions over the Internet or Ecommerce can take their chances and set up an unsecured system, set up their own secure server or purchase a service from a third party. There are various types including service that take a percentage of the transaction and/or charge a service fee and/or charge for each transaction. Some organizations are more reliable and you should always shop around before committing to a service. Because this type of service is so new the length of time a company has been operating is not always a way to decide. Things to watch for is downtime. If your companies website is operating properly yet the customer or user can't access the transaction server because it is down, too busy or misconfigured they will easily be put off perhaps entirely. Watch for contracts that lock you in as the market is still developing and prices tend to fluctuate. It is easy to switch services by simply changing the address on your website's order forms.
Security and Websites

As was stated at the beginning of this document the nature of the Internet is an open system. Having said that there are many reasons and many ways to set up a secure or closed system with in this open framework. Private or member based discussion groups, private files or folders, protected databases, copyright material to name a few all need some way of allowing them to be distributed to the intended recipient only. Also many businesses are creating Intranets which are closed systems only accessible to registered users. An Intranet can provide a way of making company information easily accessible and allow branch offices to communicate with each other easier.
Account Security

Your website itself is protected by your ISP's software. When you attempt to access your web space to change or modify a file using a shell or ftp you are challenged to send your username and password. This is the first line of protection and adequate for many website administrators.
Server Security

The server that your website is installed on is the second line of protection. Most servers have security features built in to them allowing users to password protect folders or build scripts to send a username/password challenge to a user trying to access a file or folder. This allows website administrators the ability to create discussion groups within their site or to place confidential documents or information that is made available only to registered users on their own website. Unfortunately some ISP either don't make this option available, charge a premium to use them or only allow their own employees to set them up.
Third Party Security

Another option includes contracting the protection of private files to a separate service, pay a third party to hosting a private discussion group or obtain web space on another server that allows access to security options. The entire Internet is as close as your computer connection and whether the file the user is viewing is stored in your own current web space or on another server is usually immaterial. When your customers, employees or members moves from one page to another the consistency of the website is the maintained by the design, not the address of the separate pages. It is also possible to control the address that is displayed if required.
Software Security

Another option is to use JavaScript or Java applets to control how customers or members access secure features. This option is only available to users who are using Java enabled browsers. Scripts and applets can control access to documents and databases, create content on the fly based on user input, detect the browser the visitor is using and direct them to the proper page, retrieve cookies and use that information to determine whether a user has access to a certain area or not, as well as many other uses.
Copyright

Copyright is protect using the same process as any original material (books, artwork, film, etc...). Anything that a user gets off the Internet should be treated as privately owned information unless otherwise noted. Anyone posting private information to the Internet should be aware that copyright law is not the same in every country and may be difficult to enforce. It is possible to set up a page that won't be stored on the users computer once they leave the site but that will only slow down not stop users who want to obtain information posted on a website. Notices of copyright are often added to the main page of a website sometimes with a link to a page describing the details of how the content can be used.
Is Security Necessary?

Though you may think that it is not necessary to setup security systems there are many reason to consider it. I have come across a number of examples of people forging documents and email. A digital signature will be the only way to verify whether a document is genuine or not.

Many organizations need to discuss draft articles, changes to bylaws and other documents that could cause problems if they were made public before they are approved. A secure directory within your website is an ideal spot to store sensitive material making it available for members and people who have the proper password.

I would be remiss to not point out and as all articles on the subject also point out mining the Internet with malicious intent is also possible. One common malicious acts is to search websites for email addresses and then add them to spam distribution lists. Unfortunately there is very little that can be done to counter this other than removing your email address from your web site but this makes it difficult for your customers to contact you.

Whether you decide to add a security component to your web site project initially it is a good idea to think about or have a discussion about web site security when planning the site. You should also review your security systems periodically whether that is changing your password or reviewing and updating your security system.

Networks
Most people working in office with more than a couple of computers will be using some form of network. As networks become easier to setup and maintain more home users are also setting up networks to share resource such as disk space, printers, Internet connections and access to software.

A network is basically two or more computers connected through a cable or wire which share resources. Network software controls how the computers communicate.

There are dozens of different types of networks which are impossible to cover in an introduction article. This article focuses on home and small business networks using some version of the Window operating system.

To connect computers each of the computers needs a network card with a connection that allows a cable to be connected to it. Computers can be connected directly through a bi-directional cable or through an other piece of hardware called a hub. The hub then connects all the computers in your local network together. Both solutions cost about the same but a hub allows more than two computers to connect. A hub can also be used to connect two local area networks together to create a wide area network.

Some form of network software is required. This network protocol software is installed through the network preferences. NetBIOS was commonly used though recently a secure TCP/IP protocol has been developed. The network protocol determines how computers become part of the network and how they are recognized. The network must have a name and you can use some creativity at this point. Each computer must also have a unique name that other computers on the network can access them with.

If all goes well this is all you need but often there will be a conflict that can be resolved by establishing exactly how the computer will communicate. To solve these types of conflict your network needs a set DNS server address and each computer in the network needs to be assigned a unique IP address. The addresses usually are in the range of 192.168.x.x where x means any number between 0 and 255. Once these numbers have been entered your network should be functioning with each computer able to see the other computers on the network.

You must also decide which resources you want to share. You may want to make a disk or folder available, a printer or tape backup system so that everyone can use it. You may also want to have parts of the network that are either not accessible or accessible only through a password. File and print sharing must be enable on the computer that will share it's resources or host computer and they determine how they are accessed by other computers or clients.

A computer with an Internet connection can also share that connection with other computers on the network but you should check with your ISP what their policy on sharing Internet connections is. Sharing an Internet connection also raises some serious security issues. Many cable high speed Internet connections use the Network Neighborhood settings to create the Internet connection and connecting your home or office network to this existing system can cause problems. Though you may want to allow a computer in another room of the house to access files or run programs on your computer you probably don't want the kid down the block to have that same access.

Security on networks begin with passwords. Everyone who wishes to access the network must logon with a username and password. If someone cancels the password challenge they will be able to access the files and programs on that individual computer but can't access any of the network resources. Specific passwords for important folders or disks can also be set or access to folders or disks can be forbidden.

Unlike server/client networks where the server must be running before the computers can communicate the peer-to-peer network that comes packaged with Windows allow any computers that are turned on to communicate with other. Other computers in the network become accessible as user turn them on.
Networks can also be open to remote secure access through a virtual private network. A VPN allows a computer to connect to a computer or network through the Internet.



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